Perceived Socio-Ecological Drivers of Human–Wildlife Conflict and Household Coping Outcomes: A PLS-PM Study in Fringe Communities

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) remains a persistent challenge in wildlife-fringe communities, where expanding human land use intersects with wildlife habitats and movement corridors. Increasing evidence suggests that conflict outcomes are shaped not only by ecological exposure but also by how households perceive risk, interpret institutional responses, and mobilize coping strategies. This study presents a review-based synthesis of empirical literature examining the perceived socio-ecological drivers of HWC and associated household coping outcomes, with particular emphasis on studies employing multivariate and latent-variable approaches relevant to Partial Least Squares Path Modeling (PLS-PM). Drawing on evidence from diverse geographical contexts across Africa and Asia, the review analyzes how spatial exposure, land-use change, livelihood dependence, governance conditions, and psychosocial factors interact to influence perceived conflict risk and household responses. The findings reveal that perceived risk consistently mediates the relationship between socio-ecological drivers and coping outcomes, translating ecological exposure into behavioral, livelihood, and well-being effects. Household coping responses are shown to be multidimensional, extending beyond immediate material losses to include long-term livelihood adjustments, psychological stress, and changes in tolerance toward wildlife. Governance and compensation mechanisms exert important buffering effects by shaping trust, legitimacy, and expectations, even where direct statistical impacts appear weak. Methodologically, the review demonstrates the suitability of PLS-PM for capturing indirect effects, latent constructs, and complex interaction pathways inherent in HWC systems. By synthesizing fragmented empirical evidence into a coherent socio-ecological framework, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of conflict dynamics and provides practical insights for coexistence-oriented policy and future empirical research in wildlife-fringe communities.